Graphene applications in electronic and optoelectronic devices have been thoroughly and intensively studied since graphene discovery. Thanks to the exceptional electronic and optical properties of graphene and other two-dimensional (2D) materials, they can become promising candidates for infrared and terahertz photodetectors.
Quantity of the published papers devoted to 2D materials as sensors is huge. However, authors of these papers address them mainly to researches involved in investigations of 2D materials. In the present paper this topic is treated comprehensively with including both theoretical estimations and many experimental data.
At the beginning fundamental properties and performance of graphene-based, as well as alternative 2D materials have been shortly described. Next, the position of 2D material detectors is considered in confrontation with the present stage of infrared and terahertz detectors offered on global market. A new benchmark, so-called “Law 19”, used for prediction of background limited HgCdTe photodiodes operated at near room temperature, is introduced. This law is next treated as the reference for alternative 2D material technologies. The performance comparison concerns the detector responsivity, detectivity and response time. Place of 2D material-based detectors in the near future in a wide infrared detector family is predicted in the final conclusions.
The performance of HgCdTe barrier detectors with cut-off wavelengths up to 3.6 μm fabricated using metaloorganic chemi- cal vapour deposition operated at high temperatures is presented. The detectors’ architecture consists of four layers: cap contact, wide bandgap barrier, absorber and bottom contact layer. The structures were fabricated both with n- and p-type absorbing layers. In the paper, different design of cap-barrier structural unit (n-Bp′, n+-Bp′, p+-Bp) were analysed in terms of various electrical and optical properties of the detectors, such as dark current, current responsivity time constant and detectivity.
The devices with a p-type cap contact exhibit very low dark current densities in the range of (2÷3)×10-4 A/cm2 at 230 K and the maximum photoresponse of about 2 A/W in wide range of reverse bias voltage. The time constant of measured de- vices with n-type cap contact and p-type absorbing drops below 1 ns with reverse bias while the detectivity is at the level of 1010 cm ∙ Hz1/2/W.
The semiempirical rule, “Rule 07” specified in 2007 for P-on-n HgCdTe photodiodes has become widely popular within infrared community as a reference for other technologies, notably for III-V barrier photodetectors and type-II superlattice photodiodes. However, in the last decade in several papers it has been shown that the measured dark current density of HgCdTe photodiodes is considerably lower than predicted by benchmark Rule 07. Our theoretical estimates carried out in this paper support experimental data. Graphene and other 2D materials, due to their extraordinary and unusual electronic and optical properties, are promising candidates for high-operating temperature infrared photodetectors. In the paper their room-temperature performance is compared with that estimated for depleted P i-N HgCdTe photodiodes. Two important conclusions result from our considerations: the first one, the performance of 2D materials is lower in comparison with traditional detectors existing on global market (InGaAs, HgCdTe and type- II superlattices), and the second one, the presented estimates provide further encouragement for achieving low-cost and high performance HgCdTe focal plane arrays operating in high-operating temperature conditions.
In the past decade, there has been significant progress in development of the colloidal quantum dot (CQD) photodetectors. The QCD’s potential advantages include: cheap and easy fabrications, size-tuneable across wide infrared spectral region, and direct coating on silicon electronics for imaging, which potentially reduces array cost and offers new modifications like flexible infrared detectors. The performance of CQD high operating temperature (HOT) photodetectors is lower in comparison with detectors traditionally available on the global market (InGaAs, HgCdTe and type-II superlattices). In several papers their performance is compared with the semiempirical rule, “Rule 07” (specified in 2007) for P-on-n HgCdTe photodiodes. However, at present stage of technology, the fully-depleted background limited HgCdTe photodiodes can achieve the level of room-temperature dark current considerably lower than predicted by Rule 07. In this paper, the performance of HOT CQD photodetectors is compared with that predicted for depleted P-i-N HgCdTe photodiodes. Theoretical estimations are collated with experimental data for both HgCdTe photodiodes and CQD detectors. The presented estimates provide further encouragement for achieving low-cost and high performance MWIR and LWIR HgCdTe focal plane arrays operating in HOT conditions.
The paper reports on a long-wave infrared (cut-off wavelength ~ 9 μm) HgCdTe detector operating under nbiased condition and room temperature (300 K) for both short response time and high detectivity operation. The ptimal structure in terms of the response time and detectivity versus device architecture was shown. The response time of the long-wave (active layer Cd composition, xCd = 0.19) HgCdTe detector for 300 K was calculated at a level of τs ~ 1 ns for zero bias condition, while the detectivity − at a level of D* ~ 109 cmHz1/2/W assuming immersion. It was presented that parameters of the active layer and P+ barrier layer play a critical role in order to reach τs ≤ 1 ns. An extra series resistance related to the processing (RS+ in a range 5−10 Ω) increased the response time more than two times (τs ~ 2.3 ns).
In this work we report simulation and experimental results for an MWIR HgCdTe photodetector designed by computer simulation and fabricated in a joint laboratory run by VIGO Sytems S.A. and Military University of Technology. The device is based on a modified N+pP+ heterostructure grown on 2”., epiready, semi-insulating (100) GaAs substrates in a horizontal MOCVD AIX 200 reactor.
The devices were examined by measurements of spectral and time responses as a function of a bias voltage and operating temperatures. The time response was measured with an Optical Parametric Oscillator (OPO) as the source of ~25 ps pulses of infrared radiation, tuneable in a 1.55–16 μm spectral range. Two-stage Peltier cooled devices (230 K) with a 4.1 μm cut-off wavelength were characterized by 1.6 × 1012 cm Hz1/2/W peak detectivity and < 1 ns time constant for V > 500 mV.
We report on the status of long-wave infrared Auger suppressed HgCdTe multilayer structures grown on GaAs substrates designed for high operating temperature condition: 200-300 K exhibiting, detectivity -1011 cmHz1/2/W, time response within a –120 ps range at 230 K. Abnormal responsivity within the range of -30 A/W for electrical area 30×30 μm2 under reverse bias V = 150 mV is reported. Maximum extraction coefficient of -2.3 was estimated for analysed structures.
Numerical analysis of the dark current (Jd) in the type-II superlattice (T2SL) barrier (nBn) detector operated at high temperatures was presented. Theoretical calculations were compared with the experimental results for the nBn detector with the absorber and contact layers in an InAs/InAsSb superlattice separated AlAsSb barrier. Detector structure was grown using MBE technique on a GaAs substrate. The k p model was used to determine the first electron band and the first heavy and light hole bands in T2SL, as well as to calculate the absorption coefficient. The paper presents the effect of the additional hole barrier on electrical and optical parameters of the nBn structure. According to the principle of the nBn detector operation, the electrons barrier is to prevent the current flow from the contact layer to the absorber, while the holes barrier should be low enough to ensure the flow of optically generated carriers. The barrier height in the valence band (VB) was adjusted by changing the electron affinity of a ternary AlAsSb material. Results of numerical calculations similar to the experimental data were obtained, assuming the presence of a high barrier in VB which, at the same time, lowered the detector current responsivity.