In the paper, we present a gradual transition from domination of men to equal treatment for men and women during the several decades of Polish expeditions to scientific stations in the Arctic and the Antarctic. This research has been based on the data available in the archives and at the database created within the project Female polar explorers (Polarniczki in Polish), which contains information about the number of female participants of expeditions to Polish research stations. Women participated in the seasonal expeditions almost from the very beginning when Polish research stations were established in 1970s and 1980s, but a significant increase of female participants is visible especially at year-round stations in the second decade of the 21^st century. In 1984, the first Polish female scientist overwintered in the Antarctic and in 1996 in the Arctic. In 1986, the first woman became a leader of a summer scientific expedition to Spitsbergen, and in 1991 a first woman became the leader of a year-long expedition to Arctowski Station. In the presented database, there are 825 records, that correspond to 417 surnames of female participants in Polish polar expeditions, 145 participated in more than one expedition. Women who were working at Polish polar research stations represented a variety of occupations, but most of them were scientists or combined science and station service. The collected data clearly show that the days when the presence of women at polar stations was unwelcome are a thing of the past.

This paper recapitulates Polish botanical and mycological research on terrestrial and freshwater Antarctic ecosystems carried out between 1977 and 2009. The main results are briefly summarized. The references encompass nearly 200 papers on floristics, taxonomy, biogeography, ecology, cytology, bioc hemistry, physiology and genetics of lichens, mosses, fungi, algae and vascular plants inhabiting soils, rocks and inland waters in the Antarctic.

The method of target strength measurement adopted for the krill's target strength determination is proposed. The relation between the length of krill's individual and its target strength, obtained at the laboratory conditions, is presented.

The shelf fishing grounds of Kerguelen Islands and of some neighbouring ocean shallows were studied in April 1975. The occurrence of 15 species representing 9 families was found in the catches. Detailed study of the following five species was performed: Champsocephalus gunnari, Channichthys rhinoceratus, Notothenia rossi rossi, N. squamifrons and Dissostichus eleginoides, all of potential commercial importance. The boundaries of regions with concentrations of Ch. gunnari and N. squamifrons were determined, the productive and suitable for trawling fishing grounds were localized.

Results from measurements and basic observations of meteorological elements carried out in 1978, at Arctowski Station situated on King George Island (South Shetland Islands) are presented.

During austral summer of 1979 in the area of Elephant Island ten species of fish representatives of five families, were identified.

Admiralty Bay, which is the largest embayment on King George Island (South Shetland Islands, West Antarctica) has been geologically mapped by the present author between 1977 and 1979. The following rock-complexes have been distinguished: 1) evoic stratiform complex of andesitic and rhyolitic lavas and sediments (Martel Inlet Group and Cardozo Cove Group: probably Upper Jurassic); 2) Andean intrusions represented by gabbroic and dioritic dykes with associated pyrite-mineralization (Wegger Peak Group: approximately Cretaceous-Tertiery boundary); 3) Tertiary stratiform complex of basaltic and andesitic lavas and interstratified sediments, altogether more than 2700 m thick (King Island Supergroup: probably Eocene — Middle Miocene); 4) late Tertiary intrusive complex of basaltic and andesitic dykes and plugs (Admiralty Bay Group: probably boundary of Miocene and Pliocene); 5) late Tertiary effusives: olivine basalts, andesites etc., and sediments, about 600 m thick (Kraków Icefield Supergroup: Pliocene and ?earfy Pleistocene), with well preserved traces of two subsequent glaciations; 6) Quaternary intrusions (Cape Syrezol Group), Pleistocene) and effusives (Penguin Island Group: Holocene), mainly olivine basalts, related to opening of the Bransfield rift. An outline of structural history of King George Island is also presented.

The number of breeding pairs of penguins nesting in the Admiralty Bay region during the 1979/1980 summer was as follows: Pygoscelis papua — 3703, P. adeliae— 32918, P. antarctica — 8237. Due to diverse preferences in selection of the breeding-site environment and varying numerousness and structure of the colonies of these species the conditions of the outflow of faeces to the sea varied considerably. Long period records of the populations of penguin colonies around Pt. Thomas and Llano Pt. show increase in the number of breeding pairs of P. papua and P. antarctica and an increase in the number of P. adeliae at Llano Pt., while at Pt. Thomas the data approximate the records for the summer 1909.

Planktonie material was collected at 63 samling stations during the BIOMASS-SIBEX cruise of the r/v "Profesor Siedlecki". Samples were collected with a Bango-505 net in the water column from the sea surface downwards to a depth of about 200 m. Throughout the research area most numerous were the following typically Antarctic species: Calanoides acutus, Calanus propinquus, Rhincalanus gigas, and Metridia gerlachei. The abundance of the last one was several times higher that of other species. At the time of the investigations the animals were in the final stage of invidual development and in readiness for reproduction.

A surface gravimetric survey in Dobrowolski Station in Bunger Oasis was made. The maps of free-air anomaly, Bouguer anomaly and residual Bouguer anomaly were prepared as result of compiling the gravimetric data. An image of isoanomalies proved an occurence of gravitational disturbances in the studied area. The depth of Mohorovićić discontinuity was also defined on the ground of Woolard's theories.

Studies were carried out in February 1969. Circulation of waters in Prydz Bay was of a cyclonic character. In the surface water layer higher water temperatures were recorded to the south and lower to the north. The predominant species of Copepoda were: Calanoides acutus, Calanus propinquus and Metridia gerlachei. The highest numbers of Copepoda were observed in the southern part of the Bay. The development of the tested populations of Copepoda is zonated, asynchronous, and occurs earlier in the south than in the north.

Studies on performance capacity and selectivity of trawls used for industrial fisheries of krill (Euphausia superba) were carried out on the research vessel r/v „Profesor Siedlecki". It has been ascertained that performance capacity of the proposed trawl is about 0.86 and that chiefly small, 22—26 mm-long, krill specimens are passing through the trawl segments made of 12 mm-meshed fabric. This has an essential effect on the age-size structure of caught specimes of krill. It has been stated that the insets of less than 10 mm-mesh fabric in the bags and less than 12 mm-mesh fabric in the bellies of the trawl are practically inexpedient.

On the basis of surface pressure analyses covering the area of south-west Atlantic, maps of monthly mean pressure fields for the period from March to December 1979 were drawn. In order to accentuate the dynamics of pressure processes, maps of standard deviation as well as of the skewness coefficient of the values forming the pressure field were also prepared. Apart from this, the variation of pressure in the particular points of the field in the months considered, was discussed. Attention was drawn to the distinct quasi-periodicity, dependent on location of the given point.

A new genus and species of heteronemertean from the Antarctic (Bellingshausen Sea), Oligodendrorhynchus hesperides , is described and illustrated. Some morphological features with major systematic significance are following: the mode of branching of the proboscis and its low number of terminal branches; the lack of horizontal lateral cephalic slits but in their place a pair of shallow epidermal depressions; a gelatinous amorphous connective stratum between the outer longitudinal and circular muscle layers; the presence of a rhynchocoelic nerve; isolated fibres of the rhynchocoel circular muscle layer interwoven with bundles of the adjacent body−wall inner longitudinal muscle fibres in the intestinal region. Other anatomical characters which can also be used to distinguish the new taxon from existing heteronemertean species that have a branched proboscis are also discussed.

Phytoplankton composition plays a major role in biogeochemical cycles of the ocean. The intensity of carbon fixation and export is strongly dependent on the phytoplankton community. Yet, the contribution of different types of phytoplankton to the total production on various communities is still poorly understood in the Indian Ocean sector of Southern Ocean (SO). Therefore the variability of chlorophyll- A (Chl-a) and diatoms in the frontal ecosystems of the Indian sector of SO have been investigated along with the sea surface temperature (SST), sea surface wind (SSW), photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), and nutrients datasets for the period of 1998-2012. Combined analysis of in-situ, model and satellite observations indicate that the variability of Chl- A and diatoms were primarily influenced by light and wind. The Chl- A was higher at the sub-Antarctic front (SAF) followed by the sub-tropical front (STF) and the polar front (PF). The diatom concentration was higher at the SAF followed by the PF and STF. Maximum concentration of Chl- A and diatoms commonly observed at the SAF region are probably due to the moderate PAR, SST and wind. Dominance of diatoms at the PF may be attributed to their adaptability for low light conditions. The results from this study in the frontal ecosystems would help to understand the biogeochemical cycle of the Indian sector of the SO.

There are hardly any data concerning the vertical micro−distribution of protozoa in water column in cryoconite holes on the glacier surface. Such comparisons can provide insights into the ecology of protozoa. The present research was made on Ecology Glacier (South Shetland Islands, Antarctic); vertical microzonation of c iliates in relation to physical and chemical parameters in cryoconite holes was studied. The density and biomass of protozoans significantly differed between the studied stations (cryoconite holes), with the lowest numbers in the surface water and the highest in the bottom water. The surface waters were dominated by mixotrophic and omnivorous taxa, whe reas the deepest sampling level has shown the increase of the proportion of bacterivore species . Ordination analysis indicated that TN and P−PO 4 can strongly regulate the abundance and species composition of protozoa. The redundancy analyses (RDA) showed that the ciliate communities can be separated into two groups. The first group included species associated with surface water: Halteria grandinella and Codonella sp. The second group included species that are associated with bottom water: Prorodon sp. , Holosticha pullaster , Stylonychia mytilus −complex and small scuticociliates.

During three austral summer seasons, dust and soil from clothes, boots and equipment of members of scientific expeditions and tourists visiting the Polish Antarctic Station Henryk Arctowski were collected and analysed for the presence of fungal propagules. Of a total of 60 samples, 554 colonies of fungi belonging to 19 genera were identified. Colonies of the genus Cladosporium , Penicillium and non−sporulating fungus ( Mycelia sterilia ) dominated in the examined samples. The microbiological assessment of air for the presence of fungi was also conducted at two points in the station building and two others outside the station. A total of 175 fungal colonies belonging to six genera were isolated. Colonies of the genus Penicillium were the commonest in the air samples. The potential epidemiological consequences for indigenous species as a result of unintentional transport of fungal propagules to the Antarctic biome are discussed in the light of rapid climate change in some parts of the Ant − arctic and adaptation of fungi to extreme conditions.

A new species of lichenized ascomycete, Massalongia olechiana Alstrup et Søchting, sp. nov. (Massalongiaceae) is described from the South Shetland Islands and the Antarctic Peninsula. The species is distinguished by laminal isidia and 5–7−septate ascospores. The relationships with the other species of the genus are discussed. From Massalongia carnosa , recorded from both the Arctic and the Antarctic, the new species is distinguished by its lack of isidioid squamules and in having pluriseptate ascospores instead of 1−septate ascospores

In addition to establishing an exclusive governance system in a vast area of the earth, The Antarctic Treaty is of great importance also in terms of aiming to keep a region away from military activities. In order to carry Antarctica’s dedication to peace and science to future generations, it is necessary to avoid the militarization of the Continent. However, factors such as the ever-growing need for the Continent’s resources, increasing human activities in the Continent due to global warming, and the advancing use of dual-use scientific/military equipment due to technological developments pose a danger as the militarization of the Continent and the Southern Ocean. In this study, the risk of the recent activities of the parties to create a security dilemma and the potential of the security dilemma to increase the Continent’s militarization are analysed.

Four halacarid species: Agaue agauoides, Agaue parva, Bradyagaue drygalskii, and Halacarus minor have been extracted from bottom samples taken in Admiralty Bay, King George Island, South Shetland Islands, another four, Colobocerasides auster, Halacarus arnaudi, Lohmannella fukushimai, and L. gaussi, from Kapp Norvegia, Atka and Halley Bay, Weddell Sea. Most of these species are widespread around Antarctica and adjacent islands. Diagnostic characters are outlined. An annotated list presents 66 halacarid species reported from south of the Antarctic Polar Front. © 2016 Polish Academy of Sciences 2016.

Antarctic pearlwort ( Colobanthus quitensis ) is one of the flowering plant species considered native to maritime Antarctica. Although the species was intensively analyzed towards its morphological, anatomical and physiological adaptation to local environment, its genetic variability is still poorly studied. In the presented study, a recently developed retrotransposon−based DNA marker system (inter Primer Binding Site – iPBS) was applied to assess the genetic diversity and differentiation of C. quitensis populations from King George Island (South Shetland Islands, West Antarctic). A total of 143 scoreable bands were detected using 7 iPBS primers among 122 plant specimens representing 8 populations. 55 (38.5%) bands were found polymorphic, with an average of 14.3% polymorphic fragments per primer. Nine of all observed fragments were represented as a private bands deployed unevenly among populations. Low genetic diversity (on average H e = 0.040 and I = 0.061) and moderate population differentiation (F ST = 0.164) characterize the analyzed material. Clustering based on PCoA revealed, that the populations located on the edges of the study area diverge from the central populations. The pattern of population differentiation corresponds well with their geographic location and the characteristics of the sampling sites. Due to the character of iPBS markers, the observed genetic variability of populations may be explained by the genome rearrangements caused by mobilization of mobile genetic elements in the response to various stress factors. Additionally, this study demonstrates the usefulness of iPBS markers for genetic diversity studies in wild species.

The global zoogeographic distribution of the most widespread peracarid species occurring in three or more ocean basins below 2000 m is analysed. Basing on the published data we investigated 45 peracarid species, which have a most widespread distribution and most likely are cosmopolitan. Thirty−three species have a wide distribution in the Northern Hemisphere. Most species occur in the North Atlantic, however, 16 of these species occur also in the North Pacific, a more limited number of species occurs in the South Atlantic or South Pacific The Southern Ocean displays some special zoogeographic features and 22 widespread species occur there below 2000 m, including highly eurybathic ones. In total, 11 of the analysed species occur in all oceans. Eucopia australis (Lophogastrida), Munneurycope murrayi (Isopoda) and Eurythenes gryllus (Amphipoda) are the species with the widest distributions. Other peracarids occurring in all oceans are: the isopods Paramunnopsis oceanica and Eurycope sarsi , the mysid Caesaromysis hispida the lophogastrid Eucopia unguiculata, the amphipod Mesopleustes abyssorum and the tanaids Exspina typica, Paranarthura insignis and Pseudotanais nordenskioldi . No cumacean species has been reported with an ocean−wide distribution but Campylaspis glabra occurs in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. Among plenty of rare species in each order there are only few species with wide distribution records. There is evidence from molecular genetic studies that some of the widespread peracarids represent several cryptic species, however, some, e.g. Eucopia australis , seem to be truly cosmopolitan species. Geography of sampling is biasing our view of biogeography. The history and quality of taxonomic work as well as the reliability of geographic records (quality control of large databases) limits our investigations of widespread or cosmopolitan species as much as the limited knowledge of variation within most species causes difficulties in defining morpho−species with certainty.

Poa annua L. is the only non−native vascular plant that was successfully established in the maritime Antarctic. This project aimed to determine the amount of genetic and epigenetic variation within and between two populations of P. annua , one from South Shetland Is. (Antarctic) and the other one from Central Europe. We applied two AFLP marker systems, using endonucleases that recognised the same restriction site but differed in their sensitivity towards methylation. The Antarctic population differed from the Polish one both at the genetic and epigenetic levels. Genetic variability in the Antarctic population was lower than in the Polish one. Some loci in the Antarctic population showed signs of selection. The difference between Polish and Antarctic populations might be due to a weak bottleneck effect followed by population expansion. Using only epigenetic markers, the Ant − arctic population exhibited increased variation level compared to the Polish one. These may have resulted from plastic responses to environmental factors and could be associated with survival in extreme conditions.

Twenty six specimens of the polychaete Eulalia picta were found in finegrained sand tubes. Material was collected in the Antarctic fjord, Admiralty Bay at the depth of about 100 m. The comparison of tube sediment with the sediment composition at the collection site demonstrated that tubes were created with a high degree of particle selection. Our findings might suggest presence of the tube-building behavior in E. picta or show that this species is a highly specialized predator crawling into the tubes of other sessile polychaetes and uses their tubes as protective cases.