Atmospheric precipitation is the major input to the soil water balance. Its amount, intensity, and temporal distribution have an indubitable influence on soil moisture. The aim of the study (conducted in the years 2010–2013) was to evaluate soil water balance in an apple orchard as determined by daily rainfall. The amount and intensity of rainfall and daily evapotranspiration were measured using an automatic weather station. Changes in soil water content was carried out using capacitance probes placed at a depth of 20, 40 and 60 cm. The most common were single events of rainfall of up to 0.2 mm, while 1.3–3.6 mm rains delivered the greatest amount of water. A significant correlation was found between the amount of daily rainfall and changes in water content of individual soil layers. The 15–45 cm and 15–65 cm layers accumulated the greatest amount of high rainfall. The study showed a significant influence of the initial soil moisture on changes in the water content of the analysed layers of the soil profile. The lower its initial moisture content was, the more rainwater it was able to accumulate.

At present, Pakistan has been facing acute shortage of irrigation water and farmers have been using conventional irrigation methods for orchards, such as flood and basin irrigation, thus wasting huge amount of fresh water. Therefore, it is necessary to find efficient irrigation methods to cope with this major burning issue. The micro drip irrigation method is considered efficient but in the case of mango orchards there is a problem of irrigation frequency, number of emitters, and duration of flow from emitters to meet water demand. Considering the above, an experiment was conducted in the experimental field of the Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, by installing the drip system with two circular peripheries of lateral lines in clay loam soil covering the entire canopy of a mature mango tree. The radius of the first and second periphery around the tree trunk was 100 cm and 150 cm, respectively. Four emitters with 4 dm3∙h ^–1 discharge of individual dipper were fixed in each periphery. Emitters were tested for six different irrigation times, i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 h, to observe the moisture distribution pattern. Hydraulic characteristics, such as density, field capacity, porosity, infiltration rate, available water and permanent wilting point (PWP), were determined using standard methods (1.4 g∙cm ^–3, 33%, 49%, 8 mm∙h ^–1, 12.41% and 20% respectively). The texture class of the soil profile was determined as clay loam at the soil depth 0–120 cm. Fifty soil samples were collected at 0–10, 10– 30, 30–60, 60–90, and 90–120 cm depths and at 0–20, 20–40, 40–60, 60–80 and 80–100 cm distances on two opposite sides of emitters. The emitters provided sufficient moisture up to field capacity in clay loam soil with flow duration of 4 h. The maximum moisture distribution efficiency was 77.89% with flow duration of 4 h at vertical depth of 0–120 cm and 0–100 cm distance horizontally among four emitters as compared to 1, 2, 3 h flow duration which under irrigated the canopy area and 5, 6 h flow duration which excessively irrigated the canopy area of the mango tree. The water demand of the mango tree was met by 4 h flow duration which provided adequate moisture to the entire canopy up to 120 cm depth in the root zone and water saving was calculated as 15.91% under the installed drip irrigation system as compared with the conventional (basin) irrigation method.

The aim of the research was to evaluate effects of different rootstocks and management practices to counteracting replant disease in an apple orchard. The experiment was conducted in the Experimental Orchard of the National Institute of Horticultural Research in Dąbrowice, Poland, in 2014–2020. Apple trees of the cultivar ‘Ligolina’ were planted in autumn of 2013 at spacing of 3.8 × 1.4 m in the rows of an apple orchard that had been grubbed up in spring. The following experimental setups were used: (i) two types of rootstocks of different growth vigour (M.9, P14); (ii) replacement of soil in rows of trees with virgin soil; (iii) fertigation with ammonium phosphate; (iv) control (cultivation in the exhausted soil). Replantation significantly limited the growth of apple trees by reducing the cross- sectional area of the tree trunk, and the number and length of annual shoots. Fruit yields of apple trees grown on the replantation site were significantly lower than those of the trees grown in virgin soil. The use of ammonium phosphate fertigation had a positive effect on the growth and yield on the replantation site, especially when it was combined with the use of a stronger-growing rootstock (P14). The most effective environmentally friendly method of eliminating the apple replant disease is the replacement of the exhausted soil with virgin soil, i.e. soil that has not been used for growing fruit trees before.

Fruit tree orchards were present in some public parks from the very beginning of their existence in the 19th century. Apart from the utilitarian role, in the 20th and 21st centuries, they also gained different ones: ornamental — on account of high aesthetic qualities of fruit trees in the flowering and fruit-bearing seasons, environmental and ecological — related to supporting biodiversity, cultural — in the context of memory of old forms of using rural and allotment gardens, social — as a space for leisure, and even therapeutic — as an element of hortitherapy. The growing popularity of orchards indicates a change in the trends in contemporary public parks development.

Orchards are sprayed at the agro-technical speed ranging from 4 to 6 km per hour. The research paid attention to the influence of a higher speed reaching 8 km/h on the quality of orchard trees spraying. Applying higher speed causes a labour efficiency increase while spraying and reduces time of treatment performance. However, increasing the speed should not decrease the quality of leaf coverage with the sprayed liquid. The results of the carried out research indicate a possibility of increasing the working speed without deteriorating the quality of spraying in dwarf orchards.

The aim of this research was to prepare the basis for the certification of the apple orchard protection program by determining disappearance models for active ingredients (AIs) of plant protection products (PPPs) in fruits. Field trials were carried out in a conventional apple orchard protected with PPPs in accordance with the currently adopted program. Residues of their AIs were determined using Agilent GC-MS/MS 7000D and LC-MS/MS 6470 QQQ, and their decreases were expressed by the exponential formula: R _t = R ₀ × ^{e–k × t}. Of all the AIs found in mature fruits, captan disappeared at the fastest rate [t _(1/2) in the range of 9 to 13 days], followed by fluopyram [t _(1/2) = 13 days], tebuconazole [t _(1/2) = 14 days] and carbendazim [t _(1/2) in the range of 24 to 32 days]. With the exception of dithiocarbamates and some fungicides (e.g., Captan 80 WDG) based on captan and methyl thiophanate, other insecticides and fungicides currently recommended can be used up to 3 months before harvest practically with virtually no restrictions. From July 15 to August 15, the chemicals effective at application rates not exceeding 0.3 kg of AI per ha should be used. To protect apples against storage diseases, PPPs that are effective at a dose ≤ 0.1 kg AI per ha (e.g., certain triazoles or strobilurins) and applied not later than 1 month before harvest, should be used.