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Abstract

Irrigation of cultivated plants can be a source of toxic lithium to plants. The data on the effect of lithium uptake on plants are scant, that is why a research was undertaken with the aim to determine maize ability to bioaccumulate lithium. The research was carried out under hydroponic conditions. The experimental design comprised 10 concentrations in solution differing with lithium concentrations in the aqueous solution (ranging from 0.0 to 256.0 mg Li ∙ dm-3 of the nutrient solution). The parameters based on which lithium bioretention by maize was determined were: the yield, lithium concentration in various plant parts, uptake and utilization of this element, tolerance index (TI) and translocation factor (TF), metal concentrations in the above-ground parts index (CI) and bioaccumulation factor (BAF). Depression in yielding of maize occurred only at the highest concentrations of lithium. Lithium concentration was the highest in the roots, lower in the stems and leaves, and the lowest in the inflorescences. The values of tolerance index and EC50 indicated that roots were the most resistant organs to lithium toxicity. The values of translocation factor were indicative of intensive export of lithium from the roots mostly to the stems. The higher uptake of lithium by the above-ground parts than by the roots, which primarily results from the higher yield of these parts of the plants, supports the idea of using maize for lithium phytoremediation.

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Authors and Affiliations

Jacek Antonkiewicz
Czesława Jasiewicz
Małgorzata Koncewicz-Baran
Renata Bączek-Kwinta
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Abstract

The paper describes factors influencing the development of electricity storage technologies.

The results of the energy analysis of the electric energy storage system in the form of hydrogen are

presented. The analyzed system consists of an electrolyzer, a hydrogen container, a compressor, and

a PEMFC fuel cell with an ion-exchange polymer membrane. The power curves of an electrolyzer

and a fuel cell were determined. The analysis took the own needs of the system into account, i.e. the

power needed to compress the produced hydrogen and the power of the air compressor supplying

air to the cathode channels of the fuel cell stack. The characteristics describing the dependence

of the efficiency of the energy storage system in the form of hydrogen as a function of load were

determined. The costs of electricity storage as a function of storage capacity were determined. The

energy aspects of energy accumulation in lithium-ion cells were briefly characterized and described.

The efficiency of the charge/discharge cycle of lithium-ion batteries has been determined. The

graph of discharge of the lithium-ion battery depending on the current value was presented. The key

parameters of battery operation, i.e. the Depth of Discharge (DoD) and the State of Charge (SoC),

were determined. Based on the average market prices of the available lithium-ion batteries for the

storage of energy from photovoltaic cells, unit costs of electrochemical energy storage as a function

of the DoD parameter were determined.

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Authors and Affiliations

Bartosz Ceran
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Abstract

A novel process to recover lithium and manganese oxides from a cathode material (LiMn2O4) of spent lithium-ion battery was attempted using thermal reaction with hydrogen gas at elevated temperatures. A hydrogen gas as a reducing agent was used with LiMn2O4 powder and it was found that separation of Li2O and MnO was taken place at 1050°C. The powder after thermal process was washed away with distilled water and only lithium was dissolved in the water and manganese oxide powder left behind. It was noted that manganese oxide powder was found to be 98.20 wt.% and the lithium content in the solution was 1,928 ppm, respectively.
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Bibliography

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Authors and Affiliations

Jei-Pil Wang
1

  1. Pukyong National University, Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Busan, Republic of Korea
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Abstract

In this study, the synthesis of lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) powder was conducted by a carbonation process using carbon dioxide gas (CO2) from waste acidic sludge based on sulfuric acid (H2SO4) containing around 2 wt.% lithium content. Lithium sulfate (Li2SO4) powder as a raw material was reacted with CO2 gas using a thermogravimetric apparatus to measure carbonation conditions such as temperature, time and CO2 content. It was noted that carbonation occurred at a temperature range of 800℃ to 900℃ within 2 hours. To prevent further oxidation during carbonation, calcium sulfate (CaO4S) was first introduced to mixing gases with CO2 and Ar and then led to meet in the chamber. The lithium carbonate obtained was examined by inductively coupled plasma–mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and it was found that of lithium carbonate with a purity above 99% was recovered.

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Authors and Affiliations

Dong Hyeon Choi
Jei Pil Wang
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Abstract

Lithium was one of the first elements (besides hydrogen and helium) after the Big Bang. As a chemical element was identified in 1818. In the 19th century, Carl Lange treated periodic depression with lithium, based on the „uric acid diathesis” concept. In 1949, John Cade demonstrated the therapeutic effect of lithium in manic states. In 1963, Geoffrey Hartigan found that long-term lithium administration prevents recurrences in mood disorders, and lithium became a prototype of mood-stabilizing drugs. Currently, lithium is regarded as a first-line drug for preventing manic and depressive recurrences in mood disorders, and is useful for the treatment of manic and depressive episodes and the augmentation of antidepressants. Among mood-stabilizers, lithium exerts the strongest anti-suicidal activity. A negative correlation between lithium in drinking water and suicides was described. Lithium exerts immunomodulatory and antiviral actions, mostly against herpes viruses. The neuroprotective effect of lithium manifests by increasing the grey matter in the brain and reducing the risk of dementia. Lithium's mechanisms include influencing intracellular signaling and inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3. Using lithium in a greater number of patients with mood disorders has been recommended. Lithium’s introduction into contemporary psychiatry and therapeutic action has been reflected in literature and art.
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Authors and Affiliations

Janusz Rybakowski
1 2

  1. członek korespondent PAN
  2. Klinika Psychiatrii Dorosłych, Uniwersytet Medyczny w Poznaniu
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Abstract

As lithium-iron batteries play a crucial role in the growth of electric vehicles, their disposal is projected to increase, posing significant environmental and health risks. Recovering the metals that compose these batteries can help mitigate the negative environmental impacts of mining and address raw material shortages. This research employs hydrometallurgy to recover lithium, aluminum, iron, and copper from the electrode mixture of spent lithiumiron batteries. The average metal content found for lithium, aluminum, iron, and copper was approximately 5%, 2%, 18%, and 16%, respectively. Under optimal leaching conditions, the recovery rates for lithium and aluminum reached 100% and 95%, respectively. These metals can be further separated by pH adjustment to produce lithium and aluminum products. The remaining iron and copper in the leaching residue can also be recovered through additional leaching, replacement, and pH adjustment processes to obtain products containing iron and copper.
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Bibliography

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Authors and Affiliations

Yu-Rui Huang
1
ORCID: ORCID
Ching-Hwa Lee
1
ORCID: ORCID
Srinivasa R Popuri
2
ORCID: ORCID
Lien-Chieh Lee
3

  1. Department of Environmental Engineering, Da-Yeh University, Changhua 51591, Taiwan
  2. Department of Biological and Chemical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus, Barbados-11000
  3. International College, Krirk University, Bangkok 10220, Thailand
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Abstract

The anniversaries and associated persons of bipolar mood disorder (manic-depressive illness) and lithium treatment were discussed. 1854 year (170th anniversary): the concept of manic-depressive illness: Jules Ballairger (folie double forme); Jean-Pierre Falret (folie circulaire); 1859 year (165th anniversary): the application of lithium in the treatment of rheumatic gout – Alfred Barrod; 1899 year (125th anniversary): the dichotomic concept of psychiatric disorders – Emil Kraepelin (manisch-depressives Irresein, dementia praecox); 1929 year (95th anniversary): the introduction of the „7-up” drink containing lithium; 1934 year (90th anniversary): the concept of bipolar disorder – Karl Kleist (zweipolig); 1949 year (75th anniversary): the introduction of lithium into contemporary psychiatry – John Cade; 1954 year (70th anniversary): demonstrating the anitimanic effect of lithium using placebo – Mogens Schou; 1974 year (50th anniversary): the concept of rapid cycling (David Dunner and Ronald Fieve); 1984 year (40th anniversary): the concept of seasonal affective disorder – Norman Rosenthal; 1989 year (35th anniversary): the concept of lithium mechanism – Michael Berridge (phosphatidilonisitol system); 1999 year (25th anniversary): the foundation of the International Society of Bipolar Disorders – David Kupfer and Ellen Frank; the inauguration of the journal Bipolar Disorders – Samuel Gershon and Jair Soares; the concept of excellent lithium responders – Paul Grof; 2009 year (15th anniversary): the inauguration of the ConLiGen (The International Consortium of Lithium Genetics); demonstrating the negative relationship between lithium in drinking water and suicides; 2019 year (fifth anniversary): The book: Lithium – the amazing drug in psychiatry.
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Authors and Affiliations

Janusz Rybakowski
1

  1. Klinika Psychiatrii Dorosłych,Uniwersytet Medyczny w Poznaniu
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Abstract

The second decade of the 21st century is a period of intense development of various types of energy storage other than pumped-storage hydroelectricity. Battery and thermal storage systems are particularly rapidly developing ones. The observed phenomenon is a result of a key megatrend, i.e. the development of intermittent renewable energy sources (IRES) (wind power, photovoltaics). The development of RES, mainly in the form of distributed generation, combined with the dynamic development of electric mobility, results in the need to stabilize the grid frequency and voltage and calls for new solutions in order to ensure the security of energy supplies. High maturity, appropriate technical parameters, and increasingly better economic parameters of lithium battery technology (including lithium-ion batteries) result in a rapid increase of the installed capacity of this type of energy storage. The abovementioned phenomena helped to raise the question about the prospects for the development of electricity storage in the world and in Poland in the 2030 horizon. The estimated worldwide battery energy storage capacity in 2030 is ca. 51.1 GW, while in the case of Poland it is approximately 410.6 MW.
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Authors and Affiliations

Krystian Krupa
Łukasz Nieradko
Adam Haraziński
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Abstract

The aim of these studies was to obtain single phase cubic modification of Li7La3Zr2O12 by mechanical milling and annealing of La(OH)3, Li2CO3 and ZrO2 powder mixture. Fritsch P5 planetary ball mill, Rigaku MiniFlex II X-ray diffractometer, Setaram TG-DSC 1500 analyser and FEI Titan 80-300 transmission electron microscope were used for sample preparation and investigations. The applied milling and annealing parameters allowed to obtain the significant contribution of c-Li7La3Zr2O12 in the sample structure, reaching 90%. Thermal measurements revealed more complex reactions requiring further studies.

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Authors and Affiliations

D. Oleszak
B. Kurowski
T. Pikula
M. Pawlyta
M. Senna
H. Suzuki
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Abstract

The problem of lithium-ion cells, which degrade in time on their own and while used, causes a significant decrease in total capacity and an increase in inner resistance. So, it is important to have a way to predict and simulate the remaining usability of batteries. The process and description of cell degradation are very complex and depend on various variables. Classical methods are based, on the one hand, on fitting a somewhat arbitrary parametric function to laboratory data and, on the other hand, on electrochemical modelling of the physics of degradation. Alternative solutions are machine learning ones or nonparametric ones like support-vector machines or the Gaussian process (GP), which we used in this case. Besides using the GP, our approach is based on current knowledge of how to use non-parametric approaches for modeling the electrochemical state of batteries. It also uses two different ways of dealing with GP problems, like maximum likelihood type II (ML-II) methods and the Monte Carlo Markov Chain (MCMC) sampling.
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Authors and Affiliations

Adrian Dudek
1
ORCID: ORCID
Jerzy Baranowski
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Department of Automatic Control and Robotics, AGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków, Poland
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Abstract

Lithium-based battery systems (LBS) are used in various applications, from the smallest electronic devices to power generation plants. LBS energy storage technology, which can offer high power and high energy density simultaneously, can respond to continuous energy needs and meet sudden power demands. The lifetime of LBSs, which are seen as a high-cost storage technology, depends on many parameters such as usage habits, temperature and charge rate. Since LBSs store energy electrochemically, they are seriously affected by temperature. High-temperature environments increase the thermal stress exerted on LBS and cause its chemical structure to deteriorate much faster. In addition, the fast charging feature of LBSs, which is generally presented as an advantage, increases the internal temperature of the cell and negatively affects the battery life. The proposed energy management approach ensures that the ambient temperature affects the charging speed of the battery and that the charging speed is adaptively updated continuously. So, the two parameters that harm battery health absorb each other, and the battery has a longer life. A new differential approach has been created for the proposed energy management system. The total amount of energy that can be withdrawn from LBS is increased by 14.18% as compared to the LBS controlled with the standard energy management system using the genetic algorithm optimized parameters. Thus the LBS replacement period is extended, providing both cost benefits and environmentally friendly management by LBSs turning into chemical waste distinctly later.
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Authors and Affiliations

Gökhan Yüksek
1
ORCID: ORCID
Timur Lale
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Faculty of Architecture and Engineering, Batman University,Bati Raman Campus 72000, Batman, Turkey
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Abstract

The lithium market has experienced an unprecedented boom in recent years like a “golden age” and is one of the fastest growing raw material markets in the world. The fast growing demand for lithium is mainly related to the increase in the production of lithium-ion batteries used in electric or hybrid vehicles and portable electronic equipment, and to a lesser extent, in other strategic fields (military, nuclear technologies). This was reflected in a significant change in the structure of consumption, an increase in international trade and in the price of lithium raw materials. Moreover, in 2018 lithium was listed as a critical element for the national security and economy of the United States, and in 2020 it was also listed as a critical raw material for the European Union economy. It is also a time of increased exploration for new deposits, as well as mining processing and recycling. As a result, global lithium reserves have doubled in the last six years. All this prompted the authors to prepare an article in which the sources of lithium minerals and their resources, the basic factors determining the economic situation on the market, their prices and the possibilities of recycling and substitution are presented and assessed. Attention is also paid to the role of companies operating in Poland as significant partners on the European market of lithium-ion batteries. Lithium oxide and hydroxide and lithium carbonate are the main lithium raw materials used in Poland. In the absence of the country having its own deposits, they are imported, and the main suppliers are Chile, Western European countries and Russia.
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Authors and Affiliations

Jarosław Szlugaj
1
ORCID: ORCID
Barbara Radwanek-Bąk
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
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Abstract

Electric vehicles are the future of mobility. Electric vehicles have batteries to store energy and the most common type of batteries used in electric vehicle’s battery packs are lithium-ion cells. These cells have very high energy density and dissi-pate heat during charging and discharging cycles. There is a need to have an efficient cooling system to dissipate this heat. Bigger-size batteries in four-wheelers use liquid cooling to ensure faster charging and longer battery life. Surface cooling and tab cooling are two popular types of liquid cooling systems for battery packs. Surface cooling is a preferred type of cooling system as it is less complex and cheaper, but it creates a temperature gradient inside the cell which is detrimental to cell life. This work proposes tab cooling as a solution to improve the life cycle of lithium-ion cells. Two sets of the battery pack, one with tab cooling and the other without a cooling system were tested under different conditions for multiple fast charging and discharging cycles until their initial capacity was reduced by 30%. The results show that with tab cooling the battery performed better and battery degradation was reduced.
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Authors and Affiliations

K. Muthukrishnan
1
C. Ramesh Kumar
1

  1. Automotive Research Center, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India
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Abstract

This paper presents a comparative study of interpretable machine learning methods for lithium‑ion battery state of health (SOH) estimation using features derived from Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) and Distribution of Relaxation Times (DRT) analysis. Four DRT peak‑area features capturing diffusion (A1), charge‑transfer resistance (A2), solid‑electrolyte interphase impedance (A3), and ohmic resistance (A4). These serve as inputs to five regression models, linear regression, support vector regression, k‑nearest neighbors, random forest, and gradient boosting. All models achieve near‑perfect predictive accuracy, demonstrating that these EIS‑derived features reliably encode SOH information. To bridge the gap between high performance and transparency, we apply Local Interpretable Model‑Agnostic Explanations (LIME) and SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) to quantify both local and global feature importance. Our interpretability analysis reveals a unanimous consensus: the SEI‑related feature (A3) dominates SOH predictions, with the charge‑transfer feature (A2) as a secondary contributor, while diffusion (A1) and ohmic (A4) features play lesser roles. Cross‑model and cross‑method agreement underscores the physical validity of these insights and paves the way for integrating transparent, trustworthy SOH estimators into safety‑critical battery management systems.
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Authors and Affiliations

Taha ETEM
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Abstract

Energy storage systems (ESS) are indispensable in daily life and have two types that can offer high energy and high power density. Hybrid energy storage systems (HESS) are obtained by combining two or more energy storage units to benefit both types. Energy management systems (EMS) are essential in ensuring the reliability, high performance, and efficiency of HESS. One of the most critical parameters for EMS is the battery state of health (SoH). Continuous monitoring of the SoH provides essential information regarding the system status, detects unusual performance degradations and enables planned maintenance, prevents system failures, helps keep efficiency at a consistently high level, and helps ensure energy security by reducing downtime. The SoH parameter depends on parameters such as depth of discharge (DoD), charge and discharge rate (C-rate), and temperature. Optimal values of these parameters directly affect the lifetime and operating performance of the battery. The proposed adaptive energy management system (AEMS) uses the SoH parameter of the battery as the control input. It provides optimal control by dynamically updating the C-rate and DoD parameters. In addition, the supercapacitor integrated into the system with filter-based power separation prevents deep discharge of the batteries. Under the proposed AEMS control, HESS has been observed to generate 6.31% more energy than a system relying solely on batteries. This beneficial relationship between supercapacitors and batteries efficiently managed by AEMS opens new possibilities for advanced energy management in applications ranging from electric vehicles to renewable energy storage systems.
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Authors and Affiliations

Gökhan Yüksek
1
ORCID: ORCID
Alkan Alkaya
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mersin University, Ciftlikkoy 33100, Mersin, Turkey
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Abstract

This paper presents concepts of value chains as strategic models for long-term development and a sustainable approach for ensuring efficiency. It highlights the fact that value chains are of particular importance in the raw materials industry, where the exploration, extraction, processing and metallurgy stages are characterized by high capital expenditure and fixed costs. Additionally, it emphasizes that offering an increasingly valuable product at each stage of production or processing makes it possible to increase earnings and achieve a higher margin. In order to give a practical dimension to the presented analyses, the paper provides an example of lithium value chains and identifies the determinants of their functioning in the current market together with their prospects. The conclusion highlights Europe’s need to source raw materials within business models based on value chains.
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Authors and Affiliations

Arkadiusz Jacek Kustra
1
ORCID: ORCID
Sylwia Lorenc
1
ORCID: ORCID
Marta Podobińska-Staniec
1
ORCID: ORCID
Anna Wiktor-Sułkowska
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. AGH University of Science and Technology, Poland
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Abstract

This paper develops a novel approach for the state of charge (SOC) estimation of Lithium-ion batteries in energy storage power stations, leveraging an improved back-propagation (BP) neural network optimized by an immune genetic algorithm (IGA). Addressing the paramount importance of accurate SOC estimation for enhancing battery management systems, this work proposes a methodological enhancement aimed at refining estimation precision and operational efficiency. First, the mechanisms of temperature, current, and voltage impacts on SOC are revealed, which serve as the inputs of the neural network. Second, the improved BP neural network’s structure and optimization through an IGA are designed, emphasizing the mitigation of traditional BP neural networks’ limitations including slow convergence speed and complex parameterization. Through an extensive experimental setup, the proposed model is validated against standard BP neural networks across various discharge experiments at different temperatures and discharge currents. Results prove that the estimation accuracy of the proposed method reaches as high as 98.15% and faster converges compared to the traditional BP network, thereby being valuable practically.
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Authors and Affiliations

Xiaohong Zhu
1
Mingwan Zhuang
1
Weirong Yang
1
Xiuquan Li
1
Hang Dai
1

  1. Qujing Power Supply Bureau, Yunnan Power Grid Co. Ltd., Cuifeng East Road, Qilin District, Qujing City, Yunnan Province, China
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Abstract

An integrated process consisting of Li+ precipitation by Al(OH)3, roasting, water leaching, evaporation, and Li2CO3 precipitation was used to recycle Li+ from the waste liquid of rock salt brine (0.099 g/L Li+). Waste liquid from roc salt brine was discharged wastewater after NaCl crystallization and the removal of impurities in the salt manufacturing plant of the good rock salt mine. The influences of Al3+/Li+ mole ratio, Na+/Al3+ mole ratio, precipitation temperature, and time on the recovery of Li+ were investigated during Li+ precipitation by Al(OH)3 stage. The results showed that the optimal condition was Al3+/Li+ mole ratio = 2.5, Na+/Al3+ mole ratio = 2.2, precipitation

temperature of 60℃ (333.15 K) for more than 20 min, whose recovery of Li+ reached 97.25%. The thermodynamic analyses of the simulated Li+–Al+–Mg2+–Cl–H2O system were conducted to construct the potential-pH (φ-pH) diagrams. The results showed that the pH value should be located in the LiCl · 2Al(OH)3 · 2H2O salt region with no formation of Mg(OH)2, which started at pH = ~6.5 and ended at pH from 10.09 to 8.55 as the temperature changed. Subsequently, the Li+precipitate was roasting for the transformation of insoluble LiCl · 2Al(OH)3 · xH2O salt to soluble LiCl, followed by the water leaching to obtain the enriched Li+ solution (1.951 g/L Li+) with Li+ recovery of 85.52%. To

meet the requirement of Li2CO3 precipitation, the enriched Li+ solution was evaporated, and Na2CO3 was added to precipitate the Li2CO3 product after SO4 2–, Ca2+, and Mg2+ removal. The total recovery of Li+ was 66.69% after the experimental process, and the purity of Li2CO3 product was 99.3%, which can be regarded as industrial-grade Li2CO3. In conclusion, the success in lithium recovery using the aluminum hydroxide precipitation method provided a new perspective for preparing Li2CO3 from the waste liquid of rock salt brine, which could be considered as a newly developing lithium resource to meet the dramatically increasing demand for lithium in new energy vehicle industry.

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Authors and Affiliations

Jiajia Mu
1
ORCID: ORCID
Yuanyuan Liu
2
ORCID: ORCID
Yu Guo
1
ORCID: ORCID
Qin Zhou
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. 107 Geological and Mineral Exploration Institute, China
  2. Yangtze Normal University, China
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Abstract

This article examines in depth the most recent thermal testing techniques for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Temperature estimation circuits can be divided into six divisions based on modeling and calculation methods, including electrochemical computational modeling, equivalent electric circuit modeling (EECM), machine learning (ML), digital analysis, direct impedance measurement and magnetic nanoparticles as a base. Complexity, accuracy and computational cost-based EECM circuits are feasible. The accuracy, usability and adaptability of diagrams produced using ML have the potential to be very high. However, none of them can anticipate the low-cost integrated BMS in real time due to their high computational costs. An appropriate solution might be a hybrid strategy that combines EECM and ML.
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Authors and Affiliations

Ahmed Abd El Baset Abd El Halim
1
ORCID: ORCID
Ehab Hassan Eid Bayoumi
2
Walid El-Khattam
3
Amr Mohamed Ibrahim
3

  1. Energy and Renewable Energy Department, Faculty of Engineering, Egyptian Chinese University, 14 Abou Ghazalh, Mansheya El-Tahrir,Ain Shams, Cairo, Egypt
  2. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The British University in Egypt, El Sherouk City, Cairo, Egypt
  3. Department of Electric Power and Machines, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
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Abstract

Climate change is driving the transformation of energy systems from fossil to renewable energies. In industry, power supply systems and electro-mobility, the need for electrical energy storage is rising sharply. Lithium-based batteries are one of the most widely used technologies. Operating parameters must be determined to control the storage system within the approved operating limits. Operating outside the limits, i.e., exceeding or falling below the permitted cell voltage, can lead to faster aging or destruction of the cell. Accurate cell information is required for optimal and efficient system operation. The key is high-precision measurements, sufficiently accurate battery cell and system models, and efficient control algorithms. Increasing demands on the efficiency and dynamics of better systems require a high degree of accuracy in determining the state of health and state of charge (SOC). These scientific contributions to the above topics are divided into two parts. In the first part of the paper, a holistic overview of the main SOC assessment methods is given. Physical measurement methods, battery modeling, and the methodology of using the model as a digital twin of a battery are addressed and discussed. In addition, adaptive methods and artificial intelligence methods that are important for SOC calculation are presented. Part two of the paper presents examples of the application areas and discusses their accuracy.
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Authors and Affiliations

Marcel Hallmann
1
ORCID: ORCID
Christoph Wenge
2
ORCID: ORCID
Przemyslaw Komarnicki
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Magdeburg–Stendal University of Applied Sciences, Germany
  2. Fraunhofer IFF Magdeburg, Germany
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Abstract

The use of lithium-ion battery energy storage (BES) has grown rapidly during the past year for both mobile and stationary applications. For mobile applications, BES units are used in the range of 10–120 kWh. Power grid applications of BES are characterized by much higher capacities (range of MWh) and this area particularly has great potential regarding the expected energy system transition in the next years. The optimal operation of BES by an energy storage management system is usually predictive and based strongly on the knowledge about the state of charge (SOC) of the battery. The SOC depends on many factors (e.g. material, electrical and thermal state of the battery), so that an accurate assessment of the battery SOC is complex. The SOC intermediate prediction methods are based on the battery models. The modeling of BES is divided into three types: fundamental (based on material issues), electrical equivalent circuit (based on electrical modeling) and balancing (based on a reservoir model). Each of these models requires parameterization based on measurements of input/output parameters. These models are used for SOC modelbased calculation and in battery system simulation for optimal battery sizing and planning. Empirical SOC assessment methods currently remain the most popular because they allow practical application, but the accuracy of the assessment, which is the key factor for optimal operation, must also be strongly considered. This scientific contribution is divided into two papers. Paper part I will present a holistic overview of the main methods of SOC assessment. Physical measurement methods, battery modeling and the methodology of using the model as a digital twin of a battery are addressed and discussed. Furthermore, adaptive methods and methods of artificial intelligence, which are important for the SOC calculation, are presented. In paper part II, examples of the application areas are presented and their accuracy is discussed.
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Authors and Affiliations

Marcel Hallmann
1
ORCID: ORCID
Christoph Wenge
2
ORCID: ORCID
Przemyslaw Komarnicki
1
ORCID: ORCID
Stephan Balischewski
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Magdeburg-Stendal University of Applied Sciences, Germany
  2. Fraunhofer IFF Magdeburg, Germany
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Abstract

The article present results of economic efficiency evaluation of storage technology for electricity from coal power plants in large-scale chemical batteries. The benefits of using a chemical lithium-ion battery in a public power plant based on hard coal were determined on the basis of data for 2018 concerning the mining process. The analysis included the potential effects of using a 400 MWh battery to optimize the operation of 350 MW power units in a coal power plant. The research team estimated financial benefits resulting from the reduction of peak loads and the work of individual power units in the optimal load range. The calculations included benefits resulting from the reduction of fuel consumption (coal and heavy fuel oil – mazout) as well as from the reduction of expenses on CO2 emission allowances.

The evaluation of the economic efficiency was enabled by a model created to calculate the NPV and IRR ratios. The research also included a sensitivity analysis which took identified risk factors associated with changes in the calculation assumptions adopted in the analysis into account. The evaluation showed that the use of large-scale chemical batteries to optimize the operation of power units of the subject coal power plant is profitable. A conducted sensitivity analysis of the economic efficiency showed that the efficiency of the battery and the costs of its construction have the greatest impact on the economic efficiency of the technology of producing electricity in a coal power plant with the use of a chemical battery. Other variables affecting the result of economic efficiency are the factors related to battery durability and fuels: battery life cycle, prices of fuels, prices of CO2 emission allowances and decrease of the battery capacity during its lifetime.

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Authors and Affiliations

Piotr Krawczyk
ORCID: ORCID
Anna Śliwińska
Mariusz Ćwięczek
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Abstract

In this study, cobalt oxide (Co3O4) powder was prepared by simple precipitation and heat-treatment process of cobalt sulfate that is recovered from waste lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), and the effect of heat-treatment on surface properties of as-synthesized Co(OH)2 powder was systematically investigated. With different heat-treatment conditions, a phase of Co(OH)2 is transformed into CoOOH and Co3O4. The result showed that the porous and large BET surface area (ca. 116 m2/g) of Co3O4 powder was prepared at 200°C for 12 h. In addition, the lithium electroactivity of Co3O4 powder was investigated. When evaluated as an anode material for LIB, it exhibited good electrochemical performance with a specific capacity of about 500 mAh g–1 at a current density of C/5 after 50 cycles, which indicates better than those of commercial graphite anode material.
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Authors and Affiliations

Hyun-Woo Shim
1
ORCID: ORCID
Byoungyong Im
2 3
ORCID: ORCID
Soyeong Joo
2
ORCID: ORCID
Dae-Guen Kim
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Resources Utilization Research Division, Korea Institute of Geoscience & Mineral Resources (KIGAM)
  2. Materials Science and Chemical Engineering Center, Institute for Advanced Engineering (IAE ), 51 Goan Rd., Baegam-myeon, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi 17180, Yongin, Republic of Korea
  3. Sejong University, Depart ment of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials Engineering, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Abstract

Ferroelectric liquid crystals exhibiting a chiral smectic C* phase are deposited on z cut periodically poled lithium niobate substrates and investigated by polarized optical microscopy. While the pure substrates placed between crossed polarizers and observed in transmission appear dark, uniformly aligned liquid crystal films deposited on these substrates show alternating domains with varying brightness. This effect can be attributed to the well-known coupling between the direction of the spontaneous polarization and the optical axis in the birefringent ferroelectric smectic C* phase. Quantitative measurements of the tilt angle between the local optical axis and the smectic layer normal confirm antiparallel orientations of spontaneous polarization of the liquid crystal from domain to domain, as expected by the periodic poling of the lithium niobate substrate. This effect provides a valuable non-destructive method of optical inspection of the quality of periodically poled ferroelectric substrates, which plays an important role in achieving quasi-phase-matching in non-linear optical applications.
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Authors and Affiliations

Patrick A. Meier
1
Susanne Keuker-Baumann
1
Thorsten Röder
1 2
Harald Herrmann
1
Raimund Ricken
1
Christine Silberhorn
1
Heinz-S. Kitzerow
1

  1. Faculty of Science and Center for Optoelectronics and Photonics Paderborn (CeOPP), Paderborn University, Warburger Straße 100, 33098 Paderborn, Germany
  2. Institut für Chemische Verfahrenstechnik, Hochschule Mannheim, Paul-Wittsack-Straße 10, 68163 Mannheim, Germany

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